Critical Analysis Report
Introduction
Technology is a constantly growing and changing facet of the 21st
century, and within the field of education, it is an important
aspect that has nearly a fifty-year history (Roblyer, 2003). Although
classroom resources and technology have changed over time, there
are still issues that need to be resolved. One enduring issue
is the challenge of implementing computer technology in classrooms,
and the effects that its use has on both students and teachers.
Computers have the inherent ability to create or to significantly
contribute to an optimal learning environment. With appropriate
implementation, computer technology can be instrumental in fostering
environments that promote active learning, stimulate interest,
and support the strengths of diverse students.
Marsh (1993) stresses that “simply placing computers in
classrooms without a plan or strategy will not be productive in
most settings,” because several factors must be taken into
account before such a move will be successful. For example, decisions
must be made about the skills teachers are expected to have, the
skills that students should learn, and who will teach those skills.
Are computers adequately distributed to middle and high schools?
What kind of software and hardware should be equipped? Are computers
even equipped with Internet access? These questions raise a lot
of concern for people in the education community. According to
the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), in 1999,
25 percent of secondary school teachers reported having no computers
available in the classroom, 40 percent reported having one computer
in the classroom, 20 percent reported having two to five computers,
and 10 percent reported having more than five computers and 5
percent had none (NCES, 1999). Although the majority of teachers
have at least one computer in the classroom, that does not necessary
mean they actually use it. Some teachers might not have the skills
or experience to use a computer or sometimes simply do not have
adequate educational software programs.
The computer is a tool that should be used by both teachers and
students. However, some educators have reservations that technology,
especially computer technology, has the ability to change and
perhaps undermine traditional teacher roles. Technology changes
the way work is accomplished in most settings and, in the classroom,
it could strike at a teacher’s basic autonomy. On the other
hand, it can also be used as a tool to make teaching easier, more
efficient and useful.
Factors That Affect Computer Use in High Schools
According to Roblyer (2003) the advent of computers in the 1950s
and its use in the business industry and the military created
a new view of educational technology as educators began to recognize
the instructional potential of computers. By the early 1980s,
the software publishing movement began to emerge and school districts
began trying to develop committees whose aims were to aid in selecting
courseware. Teachers began to become acquainted with computers
and software and, by 1985, “computer literacy skills began
to appear in required curricula around the country” (Roblyer,
2003, p.9). By the early 1990s schools began to set up networked
systems and connect to the Internet, and since that time, computer
use has expanded to encompass other classroom activities (Roblyer,
2003).
In American high schools, there are numerous factors that tend
to affect computer use in classrooms. The mere existence of new
technology often does not guarantee its use, simply because most
teachers and schools operate according to historically grounded
social and culture traditions (Becker, 1998). Many teachers are
not comfortable with just picking up new technology, using it
skillfully, and integrating it into regular classroom use. Teachers’
skills in using computers also impact how they use computers,
the types of assignments they give to students and the integration
of computers into the daily classroom curriculum. Teachers who
are more familiar with technology will be more likely to offer
relevant assignments to their students (Becker, Ravitz & Wong,
1999).
Market Data Retrieval (MDR) reported that although 23 percent
of all of their teachers use computers daily, almost 22 percent
of schools report that none of their teachers use computers daily
for instructional purposes. Further, only 7 percent of schools
reported that the majority of their teachers are at an advanced
skill level (able to integrate technology use into the curriculum).
Nearly 38 percent of schools classified the majority of their
teachers as beginners, and 43 percent at an intermediate skill
level (Market Data Retrieval, 1998). As computers become more
available in classrooms, teachers must now be technically competent
in presenting materials to the classroom and be able to provide
activities and work related assignments using the computer. Otherwise,
all the money spent on computers will be pointless.
Funds and the availability of computers are often the main hindrance
to computer use in schools. In 1996, U.S. public schools possessed
5.8 million computers or roughly one computer for every nine students.
This figure also represents the “cumulative investment over
13 years (the school “life time” of an average student)
of no more than $150 per pupil” (Becker, 1998). By 1998,
93 percent of teachers in grades 4 – 12 were using computers
as part of their professional lives, using them for preparing
handouts, lessons, and recording student grades, among other tasks
(Becker, et al., 1999). Information from the NCES website indicated
that by the year 2000, the average public school contained 110
computers and 98 percent of schools had access to the Internet
(NCES, 1998). However, knowing these numbers does not tell us
if the computers are enough, how and if they are being utilized,
and if they adequately meet the demands.
Technology in High School Classrooms
Unfortunately, schools still often do not have enough funds to
provide adequate access and interaction for students. As technology
speeds up, schools find it increasingly difficult to keep up and
to acquire the newer, faster, more complex machines and technology.
As of 1998, Becker noted that fewer than 10 percent of computers
in public schools were equipped with a CD-ROM that has the capability
of containing entire encyclopedias and large collections of multimedia
content. In fact, most technologies are not present in sufficient
quantities to significantly and frequently have an effect on students’
school experiences (Becker, 1998).
Adequate amounts of software become crucial for computers in an
educational setting. The most widely used software appears to
be word processing (Morse, 1991). According to NCSE reports on
secondary schools, the operating system/platform that was most
frequently used in instructional computers was Windows 98 (49
percent). Windows 2000 or NT was second with 19 percent, Windows
95 was third with 18 percent and Mac OS 7.6 or greater was fourth
with 14 percent. These operating systems will affect the types
of software that are purchased. With the incompatibility of different
operating systems (PC and Macintosh), educational institutions
will have to plan wisely before purchasing software applications.
The location of computers in school settings is pivotal, because
if a sufficient number of computers are available within the classroom,
then teachers find it easier to combine usage with lessons and
class work. Becker, Ravitz, and Wong (1999) found that computers
placed in central locations outside the classroom (like computer
labs) were less frequently used by teachers because their locations
inherently hindered integration of computer use into classroom
instruction. Soloway, Becker, Norris, and Topp (2000) discovered
that teachers with five or more classroom computers used them
on a more regular basis than teachers who had fewer computers.
The lack of technical expertise and training also hindered more
extensive computer use by teachers. Personnel training is often
expensive, but lack of training and technical support in school
districts makes it difficult for teachers to seamlessly integrate
computer use into their teaching (Clark, 2000). If teachers felt
inadequately prepared to use technology in their classrooms, they
were less likely to use it, therefore teachers need training programs
designed to improve their technology skills. Clark’s (2000)
study concluded that training was very important in the implementation
of any new technology. That same study also indicated that teachers
were willing to use technology in their classrooms but felt anxious
about it. “In many instances, teachers’ attitudes
toward technology do influence their use of technology,”
(Clark, 2000, p. 4) and positive attitudes often propel increased
use.
Use of Computers in the Classroom
Teachers use computers for various tasks, often depending on their
skill levels and their individual needs. Teachers find that computer
technology is useful for administrative tasks, for computer gradebooks,
computerized lesson plans, and routine tasks. They are able to
create charts, posters, promotional tools, and databases that
aid in teaching (Clark, 2000). A high percentage of teachers use
computers for preparing class notes, exams, keeping grades, and
other administrative tasks; very few use computers for actual
teaching (Cuban, 1999).
Computers also are used to gather data in order to put students
in correct levels, such as reading programs. These programs help
analyze student data and determine student progress while pinpointing
strengths and weaknesses. Computers allow individualized learning
and allow more creative teaching (Clark, 2000).
Many teachers also attempt to use computers in math and science,
incorporating them into subject areas and activities. Math, computer,
and business teachers often use programs that aid in mastering
skills learned in class. Social studies and English teachers are
more interested in having students express themselves in writing
and may have students engage more in written activities. Teachers
who are interested in having students find information and ideas
are more likely to use CD-ROM reference software (such as encyclopedias)
the World Wide Web and other information retrieval programs (Becker,
Ravitz & Wong, 1999).
The most common objective for computer use beyond “learning
computer skills” was for finding out about ideas and information.
Other objectives teachers had for having students use computers
were to improve writing, to present information to an audience,
and for communicating with others. Teachers also use general office
applications, web browsers, and several math and vocational educational
tutorials (Becker, et al., 1999). Few teachers make use of more
analytic project oriented software and rarely on a frequent basis.
Fifty percent of teachers in Becker et al.’s (1999) study
had their students doing word processing activities. Thirty-six
percent used CD-ROM software and roughly 30 percent used the World
Wide Web (Becker et al., 1999). Cuban (1999) found that 71 percent
of American teachers assigned “computer work” to students
at least occasionally. Word processing is probably the major activity
in secondary school computer education classes. The most common
student activities on computers, besides word processing have
been basic skills, drills, and instructional games. Computer time
for students in class is often spent learning to type and use
word processing programs and not necessarily for improving skills
in any particular subjects. Computer time is linked to skill instruction
in areas such as basic arithmetic and language skills in addition
to computer applications (Becker, 1998). Educational software
is also used for practicing and reviewing skills, while the Internet
is used for searches and e-mail (Cuban, 1999).
As technology continues to increase, more jobs are requiring students
to become more computer literate. It is becoming more important
than ever for students to have access to computers. Only a few
states have taken the initiative on improving their technology
facilities. One example, the state of Tennessee, has significantly
improved their facilities by providing computer networking in
schools. In fact, by the end of the 1996/97school year, Tennessee’s
elementary and middle schools had the country’s largest
statewide computer network with physical connections to more than
15,000 computers, or an average of about 10 per school. In 2002,
the state of Maine also has taken the initiative by enriching
students and teachers with notebook computers. Maine’s department
of education just signed a four-year, $37.2 million contract with
Apple to supply the technology, training, and support to Maine’s
initiative in which will equip all the State’s 7th and 8th
grade students and teachers with one-to-one access to wireless
notebook computers and the Internet. The improvements of these
states hopefully will encourage other states to improve their
technology facilities as well.
While the Internet is one of the fastest growing technologies
today, the question still remains regarding whether middle and
high schools are benefiting from this intervention. According
to NCES, it is estimated that roughly 99.5 percent of all secondary
schools are equipped with Internet access (NCES, 2001). While
some people might see this statistic as a success, other factors
often can be overlooked. Although the statistic states that secondary
schools are equipped with Internet access, it does not necessarily
explain the details of how many computers are online, whether
classrooms and computer labs have Internet access, or whether
students are allowed access to the computers that are connected.
According to NCES, it is estimated that 88 percent of secondary
school instructional rooms have access to the Internet (NCES,
2001). This statistic does not state whether students have access
to the Internet or just the instructor. It could be a case that
only one computer in the whole school is equipped with Internet
access while others might have more. Unless further details are
provided, simply stating that 99.5 percent of secondary schools
have Internet access or that 88 percent of secondary school instructional
rooms have access to the Internet does not account for success
of the integration of technology in schools (NCES, 2001).
Effects of Computer Technology Use on Students
Research conducted by Owston and Wideman (2001), has begun to
suggest that a relationship exists between optimal learning and
direct access to technology. More specifically, in recent years
there has been a push for every student having his or her own
laptop computer. Owston and Wideman (2001) have noted that although
it began in Australia, the trend toward more personal access has
slowly made its way to the United States. Several colleges across
the United States (including one in Oklahoma) have begun to provide
each student enrolled with his or her own laptop with the expectation
that what Owston and Wideman call, “optimal learning”
will ensue. Optimal learning has been defined by Lovelace (n.d.)
as learning that results from an environment that invites the
child to learn and supports that learning. For younger learners
optimal learning environments may include a variety of toys, play
equipment, surroundings that have color, and books. For more experienced
learners, technology can take the place of play equipment and
again increase the level and likelihood of optimal learning.
Owston and Wideman (2001) tested the assertion that technology
will result in optimal learning by examining students’ writing
fluency in twenty-three classes of first through fourth graders
in what the authors described as a “middle income urban
school district.” Results indicated that the most benefit
was seen in a class with a 2:1 student to computer ratio as opposed
to classes with 4:1 ratios and a control class where no computers
were provided. The laptops were Apple eMate notebook computers.
In previous works, the results have been hypothesized and show
that “computer access is important, but that access did
not necessarily require a computer on every desk” (Sandholtz,
1997 as cited by the author). Overall, teachers in the Owston
and Wideman study reported increased length in stories as well
as, “neater, more refined finished products.” Finally,
the teachers reported that students who were able to utilize laptops
attained greater proficiency than those students in the control
group. However, results indicated that computers did not affect
student behavior or level of task focus and engagement. Results
also indicated that students in the computer-based sections had
higher gains in English performance than students in other sections
without computers. Students showed a high level of enthusiasm
and self-regulated ability in the execution of the two computer
projects. The students learned to express their ideas and emotions
in their logs and journals and could transfer some of the writing
skill learned to more objective report writing.
A study by Higgins (1990) indicated that 91 percent of teachers
believed that reading and writing skills improved with computer
use, 40 percent believed that computers helped in math instruction
more than in any other subject, and 62 percent believed that computers
helped in decreasing discipline problems. Computer use in classrooms
also tend to increase the collaborative learning style as opposed
to the traditionally more competitive style and redefines the
roles of teachers and students are responsibility for learning
is shared by both (Higgins, 1990).
Technology also has been found to have an impact on motivation
at the post high school level. Croft and Ward (2001) examined
the mathematics course within engineering programs and reported
that among students, mathematics courses traditionally yielded
low scores for motivation. To combat the traditionally low levels
of motivation, the researchers studied the use of software entitled
“Open Learning Project: Mathematics for Engineers.”
The researchers noted prior to this intervention, mathematics
for engineers has traditionally been a non-intrinsically motivating
class especially when the students are also taking classes that
deal specifically with their future goals. The research goal was
to enhance existing learning materials and introduce new technologies
to the learning of mathematics. Results indicated that while students
have traditionally had low levels of motivation for the mathematics
courses within engineering programs, after the project was initiated,
the software provided the students with an environment that, according
to student interviews, held at least a moderate level of intrinsic
appeal.
However, while increasing the level of intrinsic motivation is
the goal for many who advocate the use of technology in education,
it is possible that students who use computers may also find that
there are other options available to them outside of traditional
academics. For example, in a study by Harris (1999), secondary
school students’ use of computers at home was investigated
to determine how much time was spent on homework utilizing computers
as opposed to time spent playing games.
Harris (1999) reported on results of a survey that asked students
to report the amount of access as well as ways in which they used
computers at home. The sample of 450 ninth graders in England
from approximately 50 schools yielded an incredible response rate
of 95 percent. Seventy-seven percent of students reported having
computers at home, not including game systems such as Sega and
Nintendo, and there were no significant gender differences in
the number of computers available to students in their homes.
Results suggested that when left to their own devices, playing
games was the most powerful motivator across genders. Utilizing
computers for homework was reported as being the least powerful
motivator. While this perhaps is not a groundbreaking study, the
results again indicate that having direct access to a computer
is not enough to insure improved school performance (Harris, 1999).
Many researchers suggest that if there is, in fact, a crisis in
education, it is one of a lack of motivation among students. Schools,
teachers, and curricula are not stimulating the intrinsic will
to learn. This has been found to be particularly true in urban
classrooms. Owston and Wideman (2001) have suggested that the
roots of the motivational crisis are the roots of the educational
process itself: curriculum and pedagogy. The basic skills (reading,
writing, mathematics) must be taught, but within a context that
is meaningful to students, in other words, within an optimal learning
environment. The authors suggest that context motivates students
if it connects with their personal experiences. Owston and Wideman
(2001) further argued that course content must acknowledge and
explore the difficult issues of social justice that schools typically
mention in passing, if at all. The authors suggest that this new
focus is not intended to be a replacement of the traditional curriculum
but instead advancement that computers could serve to enhance.
How we construct the learning experience is equally important.
Marsh’s quote at the beginning of this report echoes what
research over time has shown, namely, that schools need to provide
students with more ownership of, control during, and creation
of their learning and that simply being placed in the vicinity
of a computer is wholly inadequate for learning to occur (Harris,
1999). Furthermore, as Roblyer (2003) suggests, it is not enough
for students to become familiar with computers but in fact a successful
learning environment requires competency on the part of the teacher.
In other words, for the status of the teacher to not be undermined,
he or she must be able to provide the relevant and timely support
the students often will expect and require.
When discussing reasons for the lack of continuity and equipment
across school districts, the lack of funding often times becomes
the main culprit in the debate. Becker (1998) argues, in part,
that it is the chronically low expenditures that are weakening
any potential positive effects that computers may have. Opposition
to this may argue that greater expenditures are unwarranted until
computers have been empirically shown to improve school performance.
Hannafin, in reviewing Bork’s (1986) research, argues that
it will not be until “computer intensive learning systems,
designed for optimal impact” are developed will the “true
value” of computers be realized. A computer intensive learning
system also would address seemingly obvious concerns such as allowing
teachers to access the appropriate level and type of training
and continuing education (Clark, 2000), and the appropriate type
of hardware and software to use for the school’s curriculum
(Cuban, 1999). However, it is equally important that a computer
intensive learning system address perhaps less obvious concerns,
for example, where computers should be placed in a school building
making them both accessible and non-obtrusive (Harris, 1999; Becker,
Ravitz & Wong, 1999).
Conclusion
Finally, for computers to have the long dreamed of impact on an
optimal learning environment, it is essential that students be
motivated to take part in that environment. Motivation research
suggests that students need to write to an authentic audience,
not only their teachers. Several authors have argued that this
can be faciliated by introducing relevant and appropriate technology
into the learning environment through thorough and appropriate
instructional design, making sure that the instructional aides
are relevant to the curriculum being studied and friendly to the
user (Hannafin, 1996; Croft & Ward, 2001). With the relevant
technology and the appropriate instructional design, research
would predict that learner motivation will increase and provide
learners with the opportunity to, according to Chen and Looi (1998),
improve their level of motivation and performance, increase the
connections that they make between abstract ideas and real world
situations, develop newly acquired skills, cooperate with peers
and coworkers, and finally, develop their self esteem and confidence
by achieving their goals in an authentic environment. An optimal
learning environment utilizing computer technology, has been the
goal of many researchers and curriculum designers for over 30
years. If decisive steps are not taken, further delays will result.
Consequently, it is not hard to imagine that learners will have
to wait another 30 years before computers can have any real impact
on learning.
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